Cell Biology

Cell theory, prokaryotes vs eukaryotes, cell size, and the basic organisation of life.

Fluid mosaic model, phospholipids, membrane proteins, transport, and selective permeability.

Nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, ER, Golgi, lysosomes, and their clinical relevance.

Totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent cells. Embryonic vs adult stem cells. iPSCs. Therapeutic potential.

Cell cycle, PMAT stages, meiosis, crossing over, and clinical significance of cell division errors.

Meiosis I and II, independent assortment, crossing over, and how variation is generated.

Transcription, translation, the genetic code, gene expression, and mutations.

Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain, ATP yield, and anaerobic respiration.

Innate vs adaptive immunity, T and B cells, antibodies, complement, and immune disorders.

Oncogenes, tumour suppressors, hallmarks of cancer, carcinogens, and cancer treatments.

Mendelian inheritance, Punnett squares, chromosomal abnormalities, mutations, and gene therapy.

Darwin's theory, evidence for evolution, Hardy-Weinberg, speciation, and antibiotic resistance.

Population dynamics, species interactions, energy flow, nutrient cycles, and zoonoses.

Bacterial structure, viral replication, pathogenesis, antibiotics, and antiviral drugs.

Apoptosis vs necrosis, caspases, intrinsic/extrinsic pathways, p53, and how cancer and neurodegeneration hijack cell death.

Viral structure, the replication cycle, cytokine storms, antiviral drug targets, and how vaccines train immune memory.

DNA methylation, histone packaging, gene expression, environmental influences, and epigenetic drivers of cancer.

G1, G2, and spindle checkpoints, p53's DNA-damage response, and how checkpoint failure drives cancer.