Biochemistry

Chemical bonds, water chemistry, functional groups, and the four macromolecules.

Amino acid structure, peptide bonds, protein folding, and protein function.

Enzyme kinetics, Km, Vmax, inhibition types, and clinical enzyme applications.

Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain, and metabolic regulation.

Fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, and lipoprotein metabolism.

Peptide vs steroid hormones, receptor types, signal transduction, and second messengers.

DNA replication, polymerases, repair mechanisms, and clinical DNA repair disorders.

Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides, glycolysis, and blood glucose control.

Fat and water-soluble vitamins, deficiency diseases, and cofactor roles in metabolism.

Henderson-Hasselbalch, buffers, arterial blood gas interpretation, and metabolic disorders.

Receptor tyrosine kinases, GPCR, cAMP, PI3K/Akt, and MAPK pathways.

Digestive enzymes, bile acid metabolism, nutrient absorption, and gut microbiome.

Purine and pyrimidine synthesis, salvage pathways, RNA types, and transcription.

Drug targets, pharmacokinetics, therapeutic index, and mechanisms of common drugs.

PCR, gel electrophoresis, DNA sequencing, recombinant DNA, and CRISPR gene editing.

Enzyme-block genetics, PKU, galactosemia, glycogen storage disease, urea cycle disorders, and newborn screening.

Receptors, second messengers, phosphorylation cascades, receptor specificity, and signalling in cancer and drugs.

Free radicals, lipid peroxidation, antioxidant defences, and oxidative stress in disease and ageing.